Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Chapter 1: Production of Bioenergy in the Framework of Circular Economy: A Sustainable Circular System in Ecuador

1.1 Introduction
1.2 A Sustainable Circular System in Ecuador
1.3 Microalgae versus Palm Oil in Ecuador
1.4 Discussion
1.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References

Chapter 2: The Impact of Biomass Feedstock Composition and Pre-treatments on Tar Formation during Biomass Gasification

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Tar Composition
2.3 Tar Formation Cell Wall Polymers and Ash Composition
2.4 Thermochemical Pre-treatments for Gasification
2.5 Processing Options that Exploit Conversion Route Integration
2.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References

Chapter 3: Key Pretreatment Technologies for An Efficient Bioethanol Production from Lignocellulosics

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Pretreatment Methods for Lignocellulosic Biomass
3.3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References

Chapter 4: Present Status on Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Bioethanol Production

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Hydrolysis/Saccharification
4.3 Future prospects of enzymatic hydrolysis
References

Chapter 5: Biological Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomaterials

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Pretreatment
5.3 Microbial Pretreatment Process
5.4 Conclusion
References

Chapter 6: Anaerobic Digestion and the Use of Pre-treatments on Lignocellulosic Feedstocks to Improve Biogas Production and Process Economics

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Feedstocks Available for AD
6.3 Feedstock Pre-treatment to Improve AD
6.4 Pre-treatment and Optimizing AD
6.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References

Chapter 7: Algae: The Future of Bioenergy

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Technological Innovations for Algae Cultivation, Harvesting and Drying
7.3 Algae-based Bioenergy Products
7.4 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgement
References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1: Fuels used in the generation of electricity
Table 1.2: Uses of biogas by region
Table 1.3: Individual revenues and expenditures associated with proposed initiatives
Table 1.4: Revenues and expenditures as part of the proposed circular system

Chapter 2

Table 2.1: The tar subcategories as reviewed by Li et al.,⁶ elucidated by Ponzio et al.,¹⁹ Benzene is a dominant component of classes 2–5.
Table 2.2: Some components and treatments that increase and decrease tar production during gasification

Chapter 3

Table 3.1: Effect of different pretreatment methods on lignocellulosic biomass structure.
Table 3.2: Capital cost of some important pretreatment processes (feedstock used: corn stover) [86].
Table 3.3: Comparison of different pretreatment routes
Table 3.4: Summary of advantages and disadvantages of pretreatment technologies for lignocellulosic biomass.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1: Reducing sugar yield from different types of biomass.
Table 4.2: Cellulase (CMCase) production by different fungal strains under SSF condition
Table 4.3: Effect of additive on cellulase mediated hydrolysis

Chapter 5

Table 5.1: Composition of different lignocellulosic biomass (Jrgensen et al., 2007).
Table 5.2: Different types of pretreatment method.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1: Comparison of open cultivation systems versus closed land-based systems
Table 7.2: Summary of energy usage and highest possible solids (%w/v) yields of different algae harvesting techniques
Table 7.3: Oil output of different biofuel feed stocks

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1: Global primary energy producing regions in the years 1973 and 2010.
Figure 1.2: Primary energy supply in the world by 2035 under different scenarios.
Figure 1.3: Schematic for sustainable circular system in Ecuador.
Figure 1.4: Renewable and waste energies in 2009.
Figure 1.5: Trends of market power and biodiesel margins.
Figure 1.6: Fuel consumption, diesel price and world biodiesel price.
Figure 1.7: Potential demand of biodiesel and available are for energy crops.
Figure 1.8: Photobioreactor sheet.
Figure 1.9: Potential algal biomass conversion processes.
Figure 1.10: Yields and revenues from palm oil biodiesel production and by-products.
Figure 1.11: Capital and operational costs of palm based biodiesel production to 2025.
Figure 1.12: Ecuadorian cattle numbers (1000kg) to 2011 and project up to 2025.
Figure 1.13: Emissions of CO2 equivalent and potential revenues from mitigation in Ecuador up to 2025.
Figure 1.14: Potential revenues and potential energy production (KWh) from biogas production in Ecuador.
Figure 1.15: Emissions of CO2 from biogas combustion and emissions of CO2 equivalent. Fuente:Methodology and formulas of [9], Developed by the authors.
Figure 1.16: Capital and operational costs of microalgae based biodiesel production to 2025.
Figure 1.17: Yields and incomes from by-products of microalgae based biodiesel production.
Figure 1.18: Capital and operational costs of microalgae2 up to 2025.
Figure 1.19: Yields and incomes from the by-products of microalgae2 based biodiesel production.
Figure 1.20: Scenarios 1 and 2- potential revenues and tons of biomass cake based animal feed.
Figure 1.21: Scenarios 3 and 4 - potential revenues and tons of biomass cake based animal feed.
Figure 1.22: Potential animal feed availability per animal unit in Ecuador.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1: Tar formation pathway according to the process temperature.
Figure 2.2: Contribution of tar compounds from lignocellulosic material.
Figure 2.3: A batch fed pilot scale slow pyrolysis unit, located at the Institute for Biological Environmental and Rural Sciences at Aberystwyth University (http://beaconwales.org/).
Figure 2.4: A suggested process flow chart of a slow pyrolysis and gasification unit combined process stream. The thermal waste (thermres) generated from slow pyrolysis is exploited as proposed by Roberts et al. [46] and used to supplement biomass drying to increase efficiency. The pyrolysing pre-gasification step is introduced to reduce tar formation during gasification (1, 20). A similar system using torrefaction instead of slow pyrolysis may be also be implemented. The torrified or charred biomass is blended and pelletized (PELL) prior to gasification. Created using Aspen Plus V 8.6, (Aspen Technology Inc, Massachusetts, U.S.A.).
Figure 2.5: A suggested process flow diagram exploring the combination of fast pyrolysis and gasification in order to promote reduced tar production during the gasification phase. Both char (from fast pyrolysis) and higher temperature gasification (supported by bio-oil as a supplementary fuel) are associated with lower tar yields. The process may also utilise intermediate pyrolysis with potentially greater efficiency due to the ease of separation between the aqueous and oil fractions. Created using Aspen Plus V 8.6, Aspen Technology Inc, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Figure 2.6: Integrated processing using multiple products may be an efficient way to manipulate biomass in order to reduce tar production during gasification. Based on Kamm and Kamm [54].
Figure 2.7: The kade system was originally designed for processing low input high diversity biomass for efficient combustion fuel generation. However, the end product is a blended pellet with reduced mineral and sugar composition. The blend contains char from slow pyrolysis of waste reed. Reduced mineral composition benefits gasification as mineral fouling of the gasifier is reduced and the addition of char reduces tar formation as described in previous research. By combining processes a suitable gasification fuel may have been generated. Created using Aspen Plus V 8.6, (Aspen Technology Inc, Massachusetts, U.S.A.).

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1: Overall process scheme for bioethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass.
Figure 3.2: Design of pretreatment technology for bioethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1: Saccharification process for lignocelluosic material.
Figure 4.2: Schematic representation of cellulase mediated hydrolysis.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1: Structural of cell wall of lignocellulosic biomass (Daniela et al., 2011).
Figure 5.2: Structural of cellulose (Beguin et al., 1994).
Figure 5.3: General structure of Hemicellulose [web: 4].
Figure 5.4: General structure of xylan [web: 5].
Figure 5.5: Partial structure of a hypothetical lignin molecule from European beech (Fagus sylvatica). The phenylpropanoid units that make up lignin are not linked in a simple, repeating way. The lignin of beech contains units derived from coniferyl alcohol, sinapyl alcohol, and para-coumaryl alcohol in the approximate ratio 100:70:7 and is typical of angiosperm lignin. Gymnosperm lignin contains relatively fewer sinapyl alcohol units (Nimz et al., 1974).
Figure 5.6: Structure of lignin (Perez et al., 2002).

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1: The stages of the methane fermentation process [9].
Figure 6.2: Biomass as a renewable feedstock [42].
Figure 6.3: Diagrammatic illustration of the framework of lignocellulose [71].
Figure 6.4: Steam explosion rig at BEACON biorefining facility (Aberystwyth University, UK). (www.beaconwales.org)

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1: Schematic representation of algal biomass, their processing and end products.
Figure 7.2: Different types of open cultivation system.
Figure 7.3: Different models of closed cultivation systems (photobioreactors).
Figure 7.4: Algal turf scrubber (ATS).
Figure 7.5: Seaweed cultivation practices.
Figure 7.6: Different algae to energy options.
Figure 7.7: Mechanism of photolysis.

Advances in Biofeedstocks and Biofuels

Volume 1:

Biofeedstocks and Their Processing

Edited by

Dr. Lalit Kumar Singh

Department of Biochemical Engineering, Harcourt Butler Technical University (Formerly Harcourt Butler Technological Institute)

Dr. Gaurav Chaudhary

Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Engineering & Technology, Mangalayatan University

Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Beverly, Massachusetts.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978-1-119-11725-4