Contents

Cover

Preface

Chapter 1: Acid Gas Injection: Engineering Steady State in a Dynamic World

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Steady-State Processes
1.3 Basic Process Requirements
1.4 Process Input Variabilities
1.5 Process Output Variables
1.6 AGI Process Associated Variables
1.7 Conclusion
Reference

Chapter 2: A History of AGIS

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Venues
2.3 Keynote Speaker
2.4 Workshops
2.5 Roundtable
2.6 Sponsors
2.7 AGIS Books
2.8 Conclusion

Chapter 3: Acid Gas Injection: Days of Future Passed

3.1 Introduction
3.2 State of the Art
3.3 New Processes
3.4 Modelling
3.5 More Data
3.6 The New Future
References

Chapter 4: Calorimetric and Densimetric Data to Help the Simulation of the Impact of Annex Gases Co-Injected with CO₂ During Its Geological Storage

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Material and Methods
Acknowledgement
References

Chapter 5: Densities and Phase Behavior Involving Dense-Phase Propane Impurities

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Experimental Section
5.3 Results and Discussion
5.4 Conclusion and Future Work
References

Chapter 6: Phase Equilibrium Computation for Acid Gas Mixtures Containing H₂S Using the CPA Equation of State

6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Cubic-Plus-Association Equation of State
6.3 Association Schemes
6.4 Results and Discussion
6.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References

Chapter 7: High Pressure H₂S Oxidation in CO₂

7.1 Introduction
References

Chapter 8: Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – A Review

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Literature Review
8.3 Data Analysis
8.4 Experimental Methods
8.5 Conclusions
References

Chapter 9: Molecular Simulation of pK Values and CO₂ Reactive Absorption Prediction

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Thermodynamic Background
9.3 Molecular Simulation Methodology
9.4 Application to the MEA-H₂O-CO₂ System
References

Chapter 10: A Dynamic Simulation to Aid Design of Shell’s CCS Quest Project’s Multi-Stage Compressor Shutdown System

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Centrifugal Compressor Reversal
10.3 Dynamic Modelling
10.4 Simulation Results
10.5 Modified Blowdown System
10.6 Conclusions
References

Chapter 11: Benefits of Diaphragm Pumps for the Compression of Acid Gas

11.1 Characteristics of Diaphragm Pumps
11.2 Current Projects
11.3 Improving Efficiency of Acid Gas Compression
11.4 Increasing Pressures
11.5 Varying Compositions
11.6 Pressure Pulsation and Synchronization
11.7 Conclusion
References

Chapter 12: Dynamic Solubility of Acid Gases in a Deep Brine Aquifer

12.1 Introduction
12.2 Reservoir Simulation Modeling
12.3 3D Static Model
12.4 History Matching
12.5 Results
12.6 Summary and Conclusions
References

Chapter 13: Tomakomai CCS Demonstration Project of Japan, CO₂ Injection in Progress

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Overview of Tomakomai Project
13.3 Injection Record
13.4 Features of Tomakomai Project
13.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References

Chapter 14: The Development Features and Cost Analysis of CCUS Industry in China

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Characteristics of CCUS Project
14.3 Industry Patterns & Driving Modes
14.4 Composition & Factors of CO₂ Source Cost
14.5 Conclusions
References

Chapter 15: Study on Reasonable Soaking Duration of CO₂ Huff-and-Puff in Tight Oil Reservoirs

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Mechanism of CO₂ Huff-and-Puff in Developing Low Permeability Reservoirs
15.3 CO₂ Diffusion and Mass Transfer in Dense Pores
15.4 Production Simulation of CO₂ Huff-and-Puff
15.5 Conclusion
References

Chapter 16: Potential Evaluation Method of Carbon Dioxide Flooding and Sequestration

16.1 Introduction
16.2 CO₂ Miscible Flooding and Sequestration Potential Evaluation Model and Sequestration Capacity Calculation Method
16.3 Potential Evaluation Model and Calculation Method of CO₂ Sequestration
16.4 An Example of CO₂ Flooding and Sequestration Potential Evaluation
16.5 Conclusions
References

Chapter 17: Emergency Response Planning for Acid Gas Injection Wells

17.1 Introduction
17.2 Hydrocarbon Well Blowout Control Practices
17.3 Acid Gas Blowout Thermodynamics
17.4 Acid Gas Wellbore Dynamics
17.5 Acid Gas Plume Behaviour
17.6 Analogue Performance
17.7 Acid Gas Well Control Procedures
References
Appendix

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Process Instability - Single Variable.
Figure 1.2 Process Instability - Dual Variable – Destructive Offset.
Figure 1.3 Process Instability - Dual Variable - Constructive Offset.
Figure 1.4 Process Instability - 3 Variables.
Figure 1.5 Process Instability - Multi Variable Offset.
Figure 1.6 JT Effect of Varying Composition.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 The Three Sisters, near Canmore Alberta.
Figure 2.2 Covers of the First Six AGIS Books Published by Scrivener Publishing.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Simplified Block Diagram for Acid Gas Injection Process.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Schematic View of the Densimetric Device for Measurements on Gas Loaded Solutions.
Figure 4.2 Density (left) and Apparent Molar Volumes (right) of Aqueous Solutions of...
Figure 4.3 Molar Volume at Infinite Dilution of CO₂ in Water. Left: Results at...
Figure 4.4 Schematic Representation of the Calorimetric Measurements.
Figure 4.5 Enthalpy of Mixing of CO₂ in Water, at 323 K and 5.1 MPa.
Figure 4.6 Enthalpy of Solution of CO₂ in Water and Aqueous Solutions of Electrolytes...
Figure 4.7 Enthalpy of Solution of SO₂ in Pure Water and Aqueous Solutions of...
Figure 4.8 Enthalpy of Solution of Gases as Function of the Composition of the Solution;...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 The density measurement of CS₂ dissolved in a dense propane phase at...
Figure 5.2 The apparent molar volumes of CO₂ dissolved in a dense propane phase...
Figure 5.3 The p-x phase diagram for a system of CO₂ and propane at...
Figure 5.4 The apparent molar volumes of CS₂ dissolved in a dense propane phase...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Comparison of calculation results against experimental data (CPA calculation of...
Figure 6.2 H₂S-H₂O Vapour-liquid Equilibria at 377 K (CPA Calculation...
Figure 6.3 H₂S-H₂O Vapour-liquid Equilibria at 377 K (CPA Calculation...
Figure 6.4 H₂S-H₂O Vapour-liquid Equilibria at 377 K (CPA Calculation...
Figure 6.5 H₂S-H₂O Vapour-liquid Equilibria at 410 K (CPA Calculation...
Figure 6.6 H₂S-H₂O Vapour-liquid Equilibria at 410 K (CPA Calculation...
Figure 6.7 H₂S-H₂O Vapour-liquid Equilibria at 410 K (CPA Calculation...
Figure 6.8 H₂S-H₂O Vapour-liquid Equilibria at 444 K (CPA Calculation...
Figure 6.9 H₂S-H₂O Vapour-liquid Equilibria at 444 K (CPA Calculation...
Figure 6.10 H₂S-H₂O Vapour-liquid Equilibria at 444 K (CPA Calculation...
Figure 6.11 The Absolute Deviation between Simulated Solubility of H₂S and Experi...
Figure 6.12 The Absolute Deviation between Simulated Solubility of H₂S and...
Figure 6.13 The Absolute Deviation between Simulation Solubility of H₂S and...
Figure 6.14 The Absolute Deviation between Simulation Solubility of H₂S and...
Figure 6.15 The Absolute Deviation between Simulation Solubility of H₂S and...
Figure 6.16 The Absolute Deviation between Simulation Solubility of H₂S and...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Schematic of the In-House Built High-Pressure Heterogeneous Catalytic Reactor.
Figure 7.2 H₂S Oxidation Equilibrium Calculation with...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Water content of carbon dioxide – Wiebe and Gaddy [2].
Figure 8.2 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Stone (1943). Pressures 1.52 to 6.08...
Figure 8.3 Water content of carbon dioxide – Malinin (1953).
Figure 8.4 Water content of carbon dioxide – Tödheide and Franck [3].
Figure 8.5 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Ohgaki et al. [Takenouchi and...
Figure 8.6 Water Content of CO₂ – Coan and King [18].
Figure 8.7 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Zawisza and Malesińska [6].
Figure 8.8 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Chrastil [19].
Figure 8.9 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Gillespie and Wilson [20].
Figure 8.10 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide - Song et al., [37].
Figure 8.11 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Song and Kobayashi [21].
Figure 8.12 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide at 8.274 MPa – Song and Kobayashi [21].
Figure 8.13 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Briones et al., [42].
Figure 8.14 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Nakayama et al., [22].
Figure 8.15 CO₂-H₂O Mixture Dew Points – Patel et al.,...
Figure 8.16 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Müller et al., [44].
Figure 8.17 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – d’Souza et al., (1988).
Figure 8.18 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Ohgaki et al., [23]. The Two...
Figure 8.19 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Sako et al., [46].
Figure 8.20 CO₂-H₂O Mixture Dew Points – Mather and Franck [59]...
Figure 8.21 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – King et al., [47].
Figure 8.22 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Dohrn et al., [48].
Figure 8.23 Water Dew Point Pressures and Temperatures for Known Compositions of...
Figure 8.23a Water Dew Point Pressures for Known Compositions of...
Figure 8.24 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Bamberger et al., [27].
Figure 8.25 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Sabirzyanov et al., [28].
Figure 8.26 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Valtz et al., [29].
Figure 8.27 Water Dew Point Temperatures – Jarne et al., [30].
Figure 8.28 Vapor Concentration Enhancement Factors g_w for Compressed...
Figure 8.29 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Chapoy et al., [32].
Figure 8.30 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Tabasinejad et al., [33].
Figure 8.31 Water Content of Liquid CO₂ in Equilibrium with Hydrates –...
Figure 8.32 Water Content of Liquid CO₂ in Equilibrium with Hydrates –...
Figure 8.33 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Kim et al., [49].
Figure 8.34 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Hou et al., [5].
Figure 8.35 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide in Equilibrium with Hydrates – Chapoy...
Figure 8.36 Water Content of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide - Wang et al., (2013).
Figure 8.37 Water Content of CO₂ in Equilibrium with Hydrates – Burgass...
Figure 8.38 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Jasperson et al., [66], Wiltec...
Figure 8.39 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide at 40 °C – Foltran et al.,...
Figure 8.40 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide - Meyer and Harvey (2015).
Figure 8.41 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – Caumon et al., [36].
Figure 8.42 Dew Points of Water in Carbon Dioxide – Comak et al., [51].

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Composition of Solution Species as a Function of Loading.
Figure 9.2 CO₂ Partial Pressure as a Function of Loading.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Block Flow Diagram for Quest Unit.
Figure 10.2 Shell’s Quest Compressor by MAN Diesel & Turbo.
Figure 10.3 Compressor Coverage Chart [from 13th Edition of the GPSA Engineering Data Book...
Figure 10.4 Generic Centrifugal Compressor Performance Curves, Courtesy of VMGSim.
Figure 10.5 Generic Four-Quadrant Compressor Map [4],...
Figure 10.6 Compressor speed vs. torque input to dynamic model in VMGSim.
Figure 10.7 Compressor Performance Curves in VMGSim.
Figure 10.8 Model building work process [7].
Figure 10.9 Valve Characteristics (Controlling Flow with Ball Valves).
Figure 10.10 Quest compressor original design flow diagram.
Figure 10.11 Compressor Operating vs. Simulated Discharge Pressures per Stage.
Figure 10.12 Quest compressor original design flow diagram.
Figure 10.13 Actual Compressor Speed Profile after Blowdown System modifications.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Diaphragm Pump Head.
Figure 11.2 Diaphragm Condition Monitoring for Liquefied Gases.
Figure 11.3 Diaphragm Condition Monitoring With Solenoid Valve.
Figure 11.4 Triplex Diaphragm Pump G3M for Acid Gas Compression.
Figure 11.5 Triplex Diaphragm Pump G3R for Acid Gas Compression.
Figure 11.6 Different Approaches for the Compression of Acid Gas.
Figure 11.7 Condensation Pressure of Acid Gas at Varying Compositions.
Figure 11.8 Relative Compression of Acid Gas at Varying Compositions and Suction Conditions,...
Figure 11.9 Resulting Discharge Temperature of Acid Gas at Varying Compositions and Suction...
Figure 11.10 Required Stroke Frequency of Selected Pump to Compress Acid Gas at Varying...
Figure 11.11 Model of a Suction Side Pipeline for a Pulsation Study.
Figure 11.12 Comparison of Theoretical Volume Flow Pulsations; Left: Three-Headed Pump;...
Figure 11.13 Maximum Pressure Amplitudes at One Location in a Pipe Network for Two...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 The 3D Structure of the Model.
Figure 12.2 The Correlative Intervals Depicted on a Well Log in the Area of Interest.
Figure 12.3 Vertical Porosity Distribution in the Model.
Figure 12.4 History Match of Well Pressures and Injection Rates.
Figure 12.5 Comparison of H₂S and CO₂ Plumes at the End of 10 Years...
Figure 12.6 Comparison of H₂S and CO₂ Plumes in Layers 15 and 20 at...
Figure 12.7 Reservoir Pressure Profiles During the Periods of Injection and Injection...
Figure 12.8 An Evolution of the Concentration of H₂S and CO₂ Away from...
Figure 12.9 Evolution of Mole Fraction of H₂S and CO₂ Away from the...
Figure 12.10 Comparison of H₂S and CO₂ Solubility at a Distance Away...
Figure 12.11 Preferential Solubility of H₂S in Layer 20 for Case 1.
Figure 12.12 Comparison of H₂S and CO₂ Plumes for Base Case.
Figure 12.13 Comparison of H₂S and CO₂ Plumes for Case 1.
Figure 12.14 Comparison of H₂S and CO₂ Plumes for Case 2.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 CO₂ Injection and Site Survey Projects in Japan.
Figure 13.2 Company Profile and Project Framework.
Figure 13.3 Flow Scheme of Tomakomai Project.
Figure 13.4 Aerial Photo of Capture and Injection Facilities.
Figure 13.5 CO₂ Capture Facilities and Compressors.
Figure 13.6 Heads of Injection Wells.
Figure 13.7 Schematic Geological Section.
Figure 13.8 Project Schedule.
Figure 13.9 Injection Record to Moebetsu Formation (Sandstone).
Figure 13.10 Location of Wells and Monitoring Facilities.
Figure 13.11 Schematic Diagram of Monitoring System.
Figure 13.12 Seismic Monitoring Area.
Figure 13.13 Micro-Seismicity Monitoring Results.
Figure 13.14 Natural Earthquakes Monitoring Results.
Figure 13.15 Injection Wells for Tomakomai Project.
Figure 13.16 Monitoring of Marine Environment.
Figure 13.17 CO₂ Capture Process.
Figure 13.18 Location of CCS site and Tomakomai City (Source of photo [3]).
Figure 13.19 Public Outreach Activities.
Figure 13.20 Example of Information Disclosure on Website.
Figure 13.21 Examples of Public Outreach Activities.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Distribution of the world’s large-scale integrated CCUS projects.
Figure 14.2 Pie chart of the carbon capture amount constitution of the world’s...
Figure 14.3 Pie chart of CO₂ emission constitution in China.
Figure 14.4 Distributions of CO₂ Emissions of 8 kinds of enterprises in China.
Figure 14.5 Distributions of carbon sources in China.
Figure 14.6 Relationship between capture cost, compression cost and CO₂ flow.
Figure 14.7 Relationship between transportation cost and distance, CO₂ flow.
Figure 14.8 Estimated costs of different kinds of emission sources.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Flow chart for calculation of diffusion coefficient.
Figure 15.2 Regression curve for diffusion coefficient.
Figure 15.3 Variation curve of diffusion coefficient under different pressures.
Figure 15.4 Chart of diffusion concentration.
Figure 15.5 The single well model of CO₂ huff-and-puff.
Figure 15.6 Comparison of oil recovery for CO₂ huff-and-puff under different...
Figure 15.7 The correlation between oil recovery percent and average oil draining rate as a...
Figure 15.8 The variation of oil displacement rate for all rounds under different soaking...

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Component diagram.
Figure 16.2 Map of contact and intrusion in 1/4 area of the five-spot pattern.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 Wellbore Gas Temperature vs. Depth.
Figure 17.2 78/20/2% H₂S/CO₂/C₁ Phase Envelope with...
Figure 17.3 49/49/2% H₂S/CO₂/C₁ Phase Envelope with...
Figure 17.4 20/78/2% H₂S/CO₂/C₁ Phase Envelope with...

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Location and venues for the first seven AGIS.
Table 2.2 AGIS Keynote speakers and their titles.
Table 2.3 AGIS Workshop titles and presenters.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Three generations of acid gas injection projects.
Table 3.2 Data from the al hosn (shah sour gas development) as an example of a third...

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Association energies for the H₂S-H₂O complex.
Table 6.2 Association schemes for compounds.
Table 6.3 The summary of best results of H₂S-H₂O system.
Table 6.4 CPA parameters for H₂S and H₂O involved in this study.
Table 6.5 Example cross association and self-association processes between...
Table 6.6 The coefficients of regression for different association schemes of...
Table 6.7 Simulation results of solubility for different association schemes at 377 K.
Table 6.8 Simulation results of solubility for different association schemes at 410 K.
Table 6.9 Simulation results of solubility for different association schemes at 444 K.
Table 6.10 a Comparison for the solubilities for H₂O in this work and in literature...

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Experimental investigations of the water content of carbon dioxide.
Table 8.2 Experimental data for water content in equilibrium with hydrates [12].
Table 8.3 Original experimental water content data in CO₂-Rich Phase –...
Table 8.4 Recently measured data of water content in CO₂-Rich Phase –...
Table 8.5 Experimental water content in CO₂-Rich Phase - From Song and Kobayashi...
Table 8.6 Jackson et al., [25] water solubility data in supercritical CO₂.
Table 8.7 Expérimental data point for the System CO₂-H₂O...
Table 8.8 Hydrate dissociation temperature of CO₂ – Youssef et al.,...
Table 8.9 Water content of carbon dioxide – Jasperson et al., [66], Korea...
Table 8.10 Comparison of water content of CO₂ between Comak et al., and...
Table 8.11 Water content of pure CO₂ – Loring et al.,...
Table 8.12 Measurement principles of direct methods:.
Table 8.13 Measurement principles of indirect methods.
Table 8.14 Experimental methods used for studying water content of carbon dioxide.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Quest compressor stage speeds, MAN diesel & turbo.
Table 10.2 Compressor commissioning bull gear reverse rotation after trips.
Table 10.3 Steady-state vs. Dynamic modelling comparison.
Table 10.4 Compressor dynamic simulation data requirements [5].
Table 10.5 Equivalent length of valves and fittings in feet (FIG. 17.4) [6].
Table 10.6 Bull gear r.p.m. with different blowdown valve combinations.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Initial conditions of the acid gas injection at the well.
Table 12.2 Acid gas composition and pressure at end of 10 years of injection for layer 15.
Table 12.3 Acid gas composition and pressure at the end of 10 years of injection for layer...

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 CO₂ Capture energy.

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Characteristic comparison between foreign and chinese projects.
Table 14.2 Capture costs in each stage of development ($/tCO₂).

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Physical parameter sheet of reservoirs and fluids.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Parameter data table.
Table 16.2 Reservoir screening criteria for CO₂ flooding and sequestration.

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Acid gas escape temperature at surface.
Table 17.2 Cases selected for wellbore modelling.

The Three Sisters

Acid Gas Injection, Carbon Capture and Sequestration, and Enhanced Oil Recovery

Edited by

Ying Wu

John J. Carroll

Yongle Hu

This edition first published 2019 by John Wiley &; Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
© 2019 Scrivener Publishing LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-119-51006-2

Preface

The seventh edition of the International Acid Gas Injection Symposium (AGIS VII) was held in Calgary, Canada in May 2018. The Symposium covers topics related to acid gas injection (AGI), carbon capture and sequestration (CCS), and the use of CO₂ for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). This volume is a collection of select works presented at the Symposium.

The Keynote address was presented by Jim Maddocks, the CEO of Gas Liquids Engineering in Calgary, Canada and this is the first chapter of the book.

For the first time there was an award for the Best Student Paper, which was presented to Hanmin Tu. Miss Tu is doing a joint PhD at Southwest Petroleum University in Chengdu, China and the University of Regina in Regina Saskatchewan. Her paper is Chapter 6.

Another paper worth noting was our first contribution from Japan. Yoshihiro Sawada presented a review of the Tomakomai CCS Demonstration Project in the Hokkaido Prefecture in northern Japan. This is Chapter 12 in this volume.

Alice Wu wrote a history of AGIS up to and including this book. In her paper, Chapter 2, you will discover why we chose the title for this volume.

YW, JJC, & YH

June 2018