Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Chapter 1: Processing of Bioethanol from Lignocellulosic Biomass

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Method
1.3 Discussion
References

Chapter 2: A Perspective on Current Technologies Used for Bioethanol Production from Lignocellulosics

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Bioethanol Production from Various Feedstocks
2.3 Various Conversion Paths or Technology Routes from Lignocellulosic Biomass to Ethanol
2.4 Bioethanol Production Technologies Based on Different Fermentation Modes
2.5 Conclusion and Preferred Technology Route
References

Chapter 3: Immobilized Enzyme Technology for Biodiesel Production

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Production of Biodiesel
3.3 Immobilized Lipase for Biodiesel Production
3.4 Reaction Kinetics
3.5 Bioreactor Configurations
3.6 Conclusions
References

Chapter 4: Oleaginous Yeast- A Promising Candidatea for High Quality Biodiesel Production

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Advantages of Biodiesel as Vehicular Fuel [19, 21]
4.3 Technical Aspects of Biodiesel Production Using Oleaginous Yeast [24] (Figure 4.3)
4.4 Selection of Low-cost Feedstock for Biodiesel Production
4.5 Triacylglycerols (TAGs) Accumulation in Oleaginous Yeasts
4.6 Conclusion
References

Chapter 5: Current Status of Biodiesel Production from Microalgae in India

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Algal Species for Oil Production
5.3 Engineering Modifications
5.4 Production of Biodiesel
5.5 Current Status of Biodiesel Production in India and Abroad
5.6 SWOT Analysis of Biofuels in India
5.7 Challenges
5.8 Conclusions
References

Chapter 6: Biobutanol: An Alternative Biofuel

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Biobutanol as Alternative Fuel
6.3 Biobutanol Production
6.4 Advancements in Biobutanol Production
Summary
References

Chapter 7: The Production of Biomethane from the Anaerobic Digestion of Microalgae

7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Process
7.3 Downstream Processing and Use of Gaseous Products
7.4 Conclusions
References

Chapter 8: Electrohydrogenesis: Energy Efficient and Economical Technology for Biohydrogen Production

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Microbial Electroytic Cell
8.3 Components of a Microbial Electroytic Cell
8.4 Mathematical Expressions and Calculations
8.5 Challenges and Future Prospects
References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1a A process flow diagram depicting the key process steps required in the production of bioethanol from lignocellulosic biomass. SSF: Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation; SSCF: Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation; CBP: Consolidated bioprocessing.
Figure 1.1b Overview of the key modifications and products attained at various stages of lignocellulosic biomass to bioethanol processing. Lignocellulosic biomass consists of cellulose and hemicellulose bound by lignin. Pretreatment of lignocellulose depolymerises the lignin exposing the cellulose and hemicellulose. Saccharification aims to hydrolyses cellulose and hemicellulose into their constituent sugar monomers; glucose, galactose, mannose, xylose, and arabinose. Fermentation of the sugars followed by distillation allows the formation and subsequent recovery of bioethanol. Adapted from [12, 30].

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Schematic representation of production of ethanol from corn (corn wet milling, corn dry milling), cane sugar and lignocellulosic biomass.
Figure 2.2 Different routes for bioethanol production from lignocellulosics.
Figure 2.3 Generic block diagram of bioethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass showing possibilities of various reaction- reaction integrations.
Figure 2.4 Bioethanol production from lignocellulosics via catalytic and biological syngas route.
Figure 2.5 Coordinated actions for improvement in bioethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Transesterification of a triglyceride with an alcohol to produce fatty acid alkyl esters and glycerol.
Figure 3.2 Intermediate reactions for the transesterification of triglycerides with alcohol to produce fatty acid alkyl esters and glycerol: (a) triglycerides to diglycerides, (b) diglycerides to monoglycerides, and (c) monoglycerides to glycerol.
Figure 3.3 Schematic representation of the ping-pong bi-bi kinetic mechanism for the transesterification of triglycerides to produce biodiesel. Adapted from Cheirsilp et al. (2008).

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Conversion of triacylglycerol (TAGs) into fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) by transesterification reaction.
Figure 4.2 Demonstration of diesel (from fuel station) and biodiesel (from oleaginous yeast) combustion characteristics. Combustion includes a sequence of chemical reactions between a fuel and oxygen. The major combustion difference between diesel and biodiesel is the presence of oxygen molecule in biodiesel that helps in clean burning.
Figure 4.3 Large scale biodiesel productions from oleaginous yeast.
Figure 4.4 Schematic diagram of biodiesel production by oleaginous yeast utilizing non-edible lignocellulosic biomasses as feedstock.
Figure 4.5 Lipids synthesis in oleaginous yeast via flow of citrate and malate as precursors of acetyl-CoA and NADPH (Adapted from Ratledge, 2004) [8].

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Classification of centrifugation equipment [79].
Figure 5.2 Different types of solid-liquid separation techniques.
Figure 5.3 Biofuel patenting trends in developing countries (2008 to 2012).

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 A general schematic of biobutanol production via ABE (Acetone-Butanol-Ethanol) fermentation.
Figure 6.2 Pyrolytic technique for biobutanol production.
Figure 6.3 ABE fermentation pathway.
Source: Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetone%E2%80%93butanol%E2%80%93ethanol_fermentation)

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Process overview. Although many aspects of the process have existed for a long time (solid/liquid separation using centrifugation, AD, etc.), others, such as pre-treatment and cultivation, are relatively new.
Figure 7.2 (a) Photobioreactor (closed system). Can take the form of tubular (illustrated) or plate design. They have the advantage of having a uniform light penetration throughout and a large illumination surface area. They are also easy to sterilise and relatively cheap to set up at a small scale. However, they are prone to blockages and fluctuations in air temperature. Due to the amount of glass and area usage, they are difficult to scale up (Collet et al., 2011; Zhu, Rong and Zhong, 2013).
Figure 7.2 (b) Raceway pond (open system). The main advantages of open systems are that they are relatively cheap and easy to set up using simple engineering methods and that they can be built on agricultural lands. Although they are easy to maintain and clean, they produce low amounts of biomass per m² compared to photobioreactors and are only suitable for a small number of species (Collet et al., 2011; Zhu, Rong and Zhong, 2013; Ali et al., 2015).
Figure 7.3 Many pre-treatment options exist to carry out cell disruption and facilitate the hydrolysis stage of digestion.
Figure 7.4 The AD process is long existing and well-documented. More research is still required, however, particularly into the biodiversity that exists within the digester and its plasticity during the four stages illustrated above (Vanwonterghem et al., 2014; Jiménez et al., 2014: Carballa, Regueiro and Lema, 2015). The residual biomass that is left over at the end of the digestion process is high in elemental value but is currently underutilised due to public perception of waste and legislative barriers. The potential benefit of digestate as a soil conditioner is well-reported, with high levels of available nitrogen and stable carbon (Baugnom et al., 2012). However, at the current time, most goes to landfill at the cost of the plant operator. N.B. Great care should be taken when operating anaerobic digesters of any kind, particularly when gaining entry to the vessel itself to carry out maintenance/inspections. H₂S produced during the latter stages of the process is highly toxic and is potentially fatal to humans at concentrations of >300 ppm (Berge, Zwart and Appelman, 1986).
Figure 7.5 Bioscrubbing. Pollutants are absorbed into the wash water inside the scrubber. Wash water is then transferred to the reactor where pollutants are degraded by aerobic bacteria. Clean wash water is recycled into the scrubber where it can reabsorb more pollutants. To avoid biological degradation, salt content must be controlled via frequent draining and addition of fresh wash water. A constant source of carbon and thiosulphate-rich nutrients must be supplied to the organisms in the reactor along with oxygen to facilitate the breakdown of pollutants (Diaz et al., 2010). Although adjustment of microorganisms to reactor conditions and composition of gases can take up to a few weeks, <98% reduction of H₂S levels have been reported using bioscrubbers simultaneously inoculated with Acinetobacter sp. MU1 03 and Alcaligenes faecalis MU2 03 (Potivichayanon, Pokethitiyook and Kruatrachue, 2006).
Figure 7.6 Biotrickling has a number of advantages such as suitability to small-scale processes and ease of operation.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 The current status of hydrogen production processes. Fossil fuel based processes account for 95% of world’s hydrogen production, while electrolysis and biomass based methods contribute to only 4% and 1% respectively.
Figure 8.2 Electrohydrogenesis is a key technology for energy efficient and economic biohydrogen production. The process is carried out in either single or double chambered MEC reactors. In double chambered MEC, an ion exchange membrane separates the anodic and cathodic chamber, while in single chambered MEC, no such separation is present. The key players of electrohydrogenesis are exoelectrogenic bacteria which metabolize a range of biodegradable substrate and release electron and protons in anodic chamber which further combine in cathodic chamber to produce biohydrogen.
Figure 8.3 The figure depicts the assembly of an MEC. The anode of the reactor is connected to the positive end of the external power source through a variable resistor, and the cathode to the negative terminal. The voltage (V) through the resistor is measured by a voltmeter attached in parallel to the circuit. The current through the circuit (I) is calculated using Ohm’s law (V = IR_ext).

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 A selection of pretreatments suitable for lignocellulosic biomass [8, 9, 11, 12, 21, 35–37].
Table 1.2 A selection of methods employed in the production of bioethanol from various lignocellulosic biomass sources and their resultant ethanol yields.

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Common ethanol-petrol mixture (Kang et al. 2014; Baeyens et al. 2015).
Table 2.2 Important lignocellulosic feedstocks and their composition.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Some lipase screening studies for enzymatic biodiesel production.
Table 3.2 Enzymatic biodiesel production reaction optimization literature results.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Low cost substrates used for the production of lipids from oleaginous yeasts.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 List of algal species.
Table 5.2 Showing estimated demand of diesel and biofuel blending requirements (Indian Biofuel Scenario and Planning Commission, Government of India).

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Physico-chemical properties of butanol (Adopted from OECD, SIDS initial assessment report on n-butyl alcohol).
Table 6.2 Points considered during the 1970’s for selection of ethanol over butanol.
Table 6.3 Comparative assessment of biobutanol as a biofuel.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Relative advantages/disadvantages of open and closed cultivation systems (Yang et al., 2011; Zhu, Rong and Zhong, 2013; Olivieri, Salatino, and Marzocchella, 2014; Ali et al., 2015).
Table 7.2 Comparison of the benefits and disadvantages of the two most common biological modes of biogas purification.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 A comparative assessment of different alternative cathode catalysts with platinated cathodes.

Advances in Biofeedstocks and Biofuels

Volume Two

Production Technologies for Biofuels

Edited by

Lalit Kumar Singh

Gaurav Chaudhary

This edition first published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-11752-0