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Biofuels and Bioenergy

1. Aufl.

von: John Love, John A. Bryant
68,99 €
Verlag:	Wiley-Blackwell
Format:	EPUB
Veröffentl.:	28.02.2017
ISBN/EAN:	9781118350539
Sprache:	englisch
Anzahl Seiten:	328

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Titelbeschreibung

With increased public and scientific attention driven by factors such as oil price spikes, the need for increased energy security, and concerns over greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels, the production of fuels by biological systems is becoming increasingly important as the world seeks to move towards renewable, sustainable energy sources. Biofuels and Bioenergy presents a broad, wide-ranging and informative treatment of biofuels. The book covers historical, economic, industrial, sociological and ecological/environmental perspectives as well as dealing with all the major scientific issues associated with this important topic. With contributions from a range of leading experts covering key aspects, including: • Conventional biofuels. • Basic biology, biochemistry and chemistry of different types and classes of biofuel. • Current research in synthetic biology and GM in the development and exploitation of new biofuel sources. • Aspects relating to ecology and land use, including the fuel v food dilemma. • Sustainability of different types of biofuel. • Ethical aspects of biofuel production. Biofuels and Bioenergy provides students and researchers in biology, chemistry, biochemistry and chemical engineering with an accessible review of this increasingly important subject.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

List of Contributors xiii Preface xv List of Abbreviations xix 1 Biofuels: The Back Story 1 John A. Bryant and John Love Summary 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Some history 1 1.2.1 Wood and charcoal 1 1.2.2 Dung as fuel 2 1.2.3 Oils and fats 2 1.2.4 Peat 3 1.3 Fossil fuels 4 1.3.1 Coal 4 1.3.2 Petroleum Oil 5 1.3.3 Natural gas 6 1.4 Fossil fuels and Carbon Dioxide 6 1.4.1 The Club of Rome 6 1.4.2 Climate change 7 1.5 Alternative Energy Sources 9 1.5.1 Introduction 9 1.5.2 Environmental Energy Sources 9 1.5.3 Nuclear power 15 1.5.4 Hydrogen 17 1.6 Biofuels 18 Selected references and suggestions for further reading 19 2 Biofuels in Operation 21 Lionel Clarke Summary 21 2.1 Fuels for Transport 21 2.2 Future Trends in Fuels Requirements and Technology 24 2.3 Engines and Fuels – Progress vs Inertia 26 2.4 Engine Constraints, Fuel Specifications and Enhanced Performance 28 2.5 Biofuels – Implications and Opportunities 32 2.5.1 Introduction 32 2.5.2 Ethanol 32 2.5.3 Biodiesel 33 2.6 Advanced Biofuels as Alternatives to Ethanol and FAME 37 2.7 Biofuels for Aviation; ‘Biojet’ 40 2.8 Impact of Future Trends in Engine Design on Retail Biofuels 42 2.9 Conclusion 43 Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading 43 3 Anaerobic Digestion 45 John Bombardiere and David A. Stafford Summary 45 3.1 History and Development of Anaerobic Digestion 45 3.1.1 Introduction 45 3.1.2 Mixtures of Micro‐Organisms 46 3.2 Anaerobic Digestion: The Process 47 3.2.1 General Biochemistry 47 3.2.2 Design Types 47 3.2.3 Complete Mix Design 47 3.2.4 Plug Flow Digesters 48 3.2.5 High Dry Solids AD Systems 49 3.2.6 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) 50 3.2.7 Anaerobic Filters 50 3.3 Commercial applications and benefits 51 3.3.1 In the United Kingdom 51 3.3.2 In the USA 51 3.3.3 In Germany 52 3.3.4 Overall Benefits 52 3.4 Ethanol Production Linked with Anaerobic Digestion 53 3.5 Financial and Economic Aspects 54 3.6 UK and US Government Policies and Anaerobic Digestion – an overview 55 3.7 Concluding Comments 56 Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading 57 4 Plant Cell Wall Polymers 59 Stephen C. Fry Summary 59 4.1 Nature and Biological Roles of Primary and Secondary Cell Walls 59 4.2 Polysaccharide Composition of Primary and Secondary Cell Walls 60 4.2.1 Typical dicots 60 4.2.2 Differences in Certain Dicots 67 4.2.3 Differences in Monocots 67 4.2.4 Differences in Gymnosperms 68 4.2.5 Differences in Non‐seed Land‐plants 68 4.2.6 Differences in Charophytes 68 4.3 Post‐synthetic Modification of Cell‐wall Polysaccharides 70 4.3.1 C ross‐linking of cell‐wall polysaccharides 70 4.3.2 Hydrolysis of Cell‐wall Polysaccharides 72 4.3.3 ‘Cutting and Pasting’ (Transglycosylation) of Cell‐wall Polysaccharide Chains 75 4.4 Polysaccharide Biosynthesis 77 4.4.1 General Features 77 4.4.2 At the Plasma Membrane 77 4.4.3 In the Golgi System 78 4.4.4 Delivering the Precursors – sugar Nucleotides 79 4.5 Non‐polysaccharide Components of the Plant Cell Wall 80 4.5.1 Extensins and Other (Glyco)Proteins 80 4.5.2 Polyesters 83 4.5.3 Lignin 84 4.5.4 Silica 84 4.6 Conclusions 85 Acknowledgements 85 Appendix 85 Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading 85 5 Ethanol Production from Renewable Lignocellulosic Biomass 89 Leah M. Brown, Gary M. Hawkins and Joy Doran-Peterson Summary 89 5.1 Brief History of Fuel‐Ethanol Production 89 5.2 Ethanol Production from Sugar Cane and Corn 92 5.3 Lignocellulosic Biomass as Feedstocks for Ethanol Production 93 5.3.1 The Organisms 93 5.3.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass 96 5.3.3 Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass 99 5.3.4 Effect of Inhibitory Compounds on Fermenting Microorganisms 100 5.4 Summary 102 5.5 Examples of Commercial Scale Cellulosic Ethanol Plants 103 5.5.1 Beta Renewables/Biochemtex Commercial Cellulosic Ethanol Plants in Italy, Brazil, USA and Slovak Republic 103 5.5.2 Poet‐DSM ‘Project Liberty’ – First Commercial Cellulosic Ethanol Plant in the USA 103 5.5.3 Abengoa Hugoton, Kansas commercial plant and MSW to ethanol Demonstration Plant, Salamanca 103 Selected References, Suggestions for Further Reading and Useful Websites 104 6 Fatty Acids, Triacylglycerols and Biodiesel 105 John A. Bryant Summary 105 6.1 Introduction 105 6.2 Synthesis of Triacylglycerol 107 6.2.1 The Metabolic Pathway 107 6.2.2 Potential for Manipulation 110 6.3 Productivity 111 6.4 Sustainability 114 6.5 More Recently Exploited and Novel Sources of Lipids for Biofuels 114 6.5.1 Higher Plants 114 6.5.2 Algae 115 6.5.3 Prokaryotic Organisms 116 6.6 Concluding Remarks 117 Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading 117 7 Development of Miscanthus as a Bioenergy Crop 119 John Clifton‐Brown, Jon McCalmont and Astley Hastings Summary 119 7.1 Introduction 119 7.2 Developing Commercial Interest 122 7.3 Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Potential 127 7.4 Perspectives for ‘now’ and for the Future 128 Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading 129 8 Mangrove Palm, Nypa fruticans: ‘3‐in‐1’ Tree for Integrated Food/Fuel and Eco‐Services 133 C.B. Jamieson, R.D. Lasco and E.T. Rasco Summary 133 8.1 Introduction: the ‘Food vs Fuel’ and ‘ILUC’ Debates 133 8.2 Integrated Food‐Energy Systems (IFES): a Potential Solution 134 8.2.1 Main Features of IFES 134 8.2.2 Baseline Productivity 136 8.3 Land use: the Importance of Forest Ecosystem Services 137 8.4 Sugar Palms: Highly Productive Multi‐Purpose Trees 138 8.5 Nipa (Nipa fruticans): a Mangrove Sugar Palm with Great Promise 140 8.6 Conclusion 141 Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading 141 9 The Use of Cyanobacteria for Biofuel Production 143 David J. Lea‐Smith and Christopher J. Howe Summary 143 9.1 Essential Aspects of Cyanobacterial Biology 143 9.1.1 General Features 143 9.1.2 Photosynthesis and Carbon Dioxide Fixation 144 9.1.3 Nitrogen Fixation 146 9.2 Commercial Products Currently Derived from Cyanobacteria 146 9.3 Cyanobacteria Culture 147 9.4 Cyanobacterial Genomes and Genetic Modification for Biofuel Production 148 9.5 Industrial Production of Biofuels from Cyanobacteria 152 9.6 Conclusion 154 Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading 154 10 Third‐Generation Biofuels from the Microalga, Botryococcus braunii 157 Charlotte Cook, Chappandra Dayananda, Richard K. Tennant and John Love Summary 157 10.1 Botryococcus braunii 157 10.2 Microbial Interactions 160 10.3 Botryococcus braunii as a Production Platform for Biofuels or Chemicals 161 10.3.1 Hydrocarbons, Lipids and Sugars 161 10.3.2 Controlling and Enhancing Productivity 163 10.3.3 Alternative Culture Systems 165 10.3.4 Harvesting Botryococcus Biomass and Hydrocarbons 166 10.3.5 Processing Botryococcus into an Alternative Fuel 166 10.4 Improving Botryococcus 167 10.5 Future Prospects and Conclusion 169 Selected References and Suggestions of Further Reading 170 11 Strain Selection Strategies for Improvement of Algal Biofuel Feedstocks 173 Leyla T. Hathwaik and John C. Cushman Summary 173 11.1 Introduction 173 11.2 Lipids in Microalgae 174 11.3 Starch in Microalgae 175 11.4 Metabolic Interconnection Between Lipid and Starch Biosynthesis 176 11.5 Strategies for the Selection of Microalgae Strains with Enhanced Biofuel Feedstock Traits 177 11.5.1 Manipulation of Growth Conditions 177 11.5.2 Genetic Mutagenesis 177 11.5.3 F low Cytometry 178 11.5.4 Fluorescence‐Activated Cell Sorting 181 11.5.5 Buoyant Density Centrifugation 183 11.6 Conclusions 185 Acknowledgements 185 Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading 185 12 Algal Cultivation Technologies 191 Alessandro Marco Lizzul and Michael J. Allen Summary 191 12.1 Introduction 191 12.2 Lighting 192 12.3 Mixing 194 12.4 Control Systems and Construction Materials 196 12.5 Algal Production Systems at Laboratory Scale 197 12.6 Algal Production in Open Systems 198 12.6.1 Pond‐Based Systems 198 12.6.2 Membrane Reactors 200 12.7 Algal production in Closed Systems 201 12.7.1 Introduction 201 12.7.2 Plate or Panel Based Systems 201 12.7.3 Horizontal Tubular Systems 203 12.7.4 Bubble Columns 205 12.7.5 Airlift Reactors 207 12.8 Concluding Comments 209 Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading 209 13 Biofuels from Macroalgal Biomass 213 Jessica Adams Summary 213 13.1 Macroalgal resources in the UK 213 13.2 Suitability of macroalgae for biofuel production 214 13.3 Biofuels from Macroalgae 217 13.3.1 Introduction 217 13.3.2 Ethanol from laminarin, mannitol and alginate 217 13.3.3 Ethanol from cellulose 219 13.3.4 Butanol 220 13.3.5 Anaerobic digestion 221 13.3.6 Thermochemical conversions 223 13.4 Future prospects 223 13.5 Conclusion 224 Acknowledgements 224 Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading 224 14 Lipid‐based Biofuels from Oleaginous Microbes 227 Lisa A. Sargeant, Rhodri W. Jenkins and Christopher J. Chuck Summary 227 14.1 Introduction 227 14.2 Microalgae 229 14.3 Oleaginous Yeasts 231 14.4 Feedstocks for Heterotrophic Microbial Cultivation 231 14.5 The Biochemical Process of Lipid Accumulation in Oleaginous Yeast 232 14.6 Lipid Profile of Oleaginous Microbes 236 14.7 Lipid Extraction and Processing 237 14.8 Concluding Comments 237 Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading 239 15 Engineering Microbial Metabolism for Biofuel Production 241 Thomas P. Howard Summary 241 15.1 Introduction 241 15.2 Designer Biofuels 242 15.2.1 Introduction 242 15.2.2 Isoprenoid‐Derived Biofuels 243 15.2.3 Higher Alcohols 245 15.2.4 Fatty Acid‐Derived Biofuels 247 15.2.5 Petroleum Replica Hydrocarbons 249 15.3 Towards Industrialisation 251 15.3.1 Introduction 251 15.3.2 Bioconsolidation 251 15.3.3 Molecular and Cellular Redesign 255 15.3.4 Biofuel Pumps 256 15.3.5 Synthetic Biology and Systems Engineering 257 15.4 Conclusion 258 Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading 259 16 The Sustainability of Biofuels 261 J.M. Lynch Summary 261 16.1 Introduction 261 16.2 Bioenergy policies 262 16.3 Economics of bioenergy markets 263 16.4 Environmental issues 264 16.5 Life Cycle Assessment 266 16.5.1 General features 266 16.5.2 OECD Copenhagen workshop, 2008 267 16.6 Conclusions 270 Selected references and suggestions for further reading 271 17 Biofuels and Bioenergy – Ethical Aspects 273 John A. Bryant and Steve Hughes Summary 273 17.1 Introduction to ethics 273 17.1.1 How do we Make Ethical or Moral Decisions? 273 17.1.2 Environmental ethics 275 17.2 Biofuels and Bioenergy – Ethical Background 276 17.3 The Key Ethical Issues 276 17.3.1 Biofuel production and the growth of Food Crops 276 17.3.2 Is growth of Biofuel Crops Sustainable? 278 17.3.3 Biofuel Production, Land Allocation and Human Rights 279 17.4 Concluding comment 283 Selected references and suggestions for further reading 283 18 Postscript 285 John Love and John A. Bryant Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading 287 Index 289